The Metaphysical Problem Of Freedom Essay - 1474 Words

The metaphysical problem of freedom is it is a paradox. There are three theses regarding freedom, and all three theses are plausible, yet they cannot all be true. The thesis of freedom says some of our actions are free, and sometimes we have an option to choose differently. The thesis of causalism which states that every detail of every event is caused by previous events, in accordance with the laws of nature. Lastly the thesis of incompatibilism which says at most one of the theses of freedom and causalism is true. These theses have spurred many theories to try and solve the problem of freedom, I will be discussing three theories in particular; libertarianism, compatibilism, and hard causalism. I will explain these theories, and their differences later. In this paper I will argue that hard causalism is the best solution to the problem of freedom, due to the belief that free action does not exist. Causalism can be defined in a stricter sense by the theory of hard causalism. Hard causalist believes that the thesis of incompatibilism is true, and takes the side of causalism, rather than freedom. Hard causalism takes the view, that the state of the universe at any given moment is caused by the state of the universe at a previous time (Pereboom 444-445). Hard causalism states that all of our actions are wholly governed by the laws of nature, and therefore none of them is free. This means every detail of every event is caused by previous events, in accordance with the laws ofShow MoreRelatedEssay on Freedom and Determinism in Richard Taylor’s Metaphysics861 Words   |  4 PagesFreedom and Determinism in Richard Taylor’s Metaphysics Metaphysics, as discussed by Richard Taylor, can be defined as the effort to think clearly. In order to contemplate a metaphysical issue, we require data (the common beliefs that people hold about that issue). A metaphysical problem occurs when such data do not agree. To resolve the problem, a theory must be established which removes the conflict by either (a) reconciling the conflicting data, or (b) proving one set of data to be falseRead MoreFreedom in Leibniz’s Monadological System Essay1067 Words   |  5 Pages In The Monadology, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz creates a metaphysical system that attempts to explain the nature of the material world. Leibniz does not believe that the material world can be explained using mathematics and other scientific principals, so he develops a rational theory to give him the causal explanation that he needs. This system Leibniz creates, appeals to the sufficient reason that is God and the pre-established harmony of the monads that make up t he material world. Leibniz setsRead MoreKant And Kant s Metaphysical Theorizing1303 Words   |  6 PagesKant’s metaphysical theorizing was in large part focused on the matter of how synthetic a-priori judgements were possible. 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Finally, within compatibilist ideologies, the idea of free will donate new certainties that reinforce old beliefsRead MoreThe Metaphysical Issue Of Free Will1368 Words   |  6 Pages Everyone believes himself or herself to possess the freedom of will. If we do not have free will, then that suggests that we lack any power or control over anything, therefore, nothing is up to us. This would impair our view and perception of our society, community and the world. The metaphysical issue of free will is if the initial conditions are f ixed and all the laws of nature are deterministic, then the resulting outcome that will happen thereafter is also fixed, because of the laws of natureRead More Wole Soyinkas Death and the Kings Horseman Essay1635 Words   |  7 Pagesthe play is placed in terms of two extremes, and the cultures must be considered one of those pairs. Suicide is no exception to this examination; it must be seen in the conflicting lights that Soyinka gives us: British vs. Yoruban, physical vs. metaphysical, personal vs. social; and an expression of failure vs. a form of redemption. In examining how the play divides suicide so completely through these lenses, we can better understand the actions of Elesin and Olunde.In the Yoruban world, it is clearRead MoreMorality via Kant and Hegel1712 Words   |  7 Pagesbeen as influential as Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) and his most trenchant critic, G.W.F. Hegel (1770-1831). Kant’s deontological attempt to unearth this criterion rests on one of the most metaphysical and abstract explanations ever given for the common intuitions of morality (Scruton 2001, 73). 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Forward the Foundation Chapter 26 Free Essays

16 Raych, Manella, and little Bellis were waiting at the spaceport. The hypership was preparing for liftoff and the three had already checked their baggage. Raych said, â€Å"Dad, come along with us. We will write a custom essay sample on Forward the Foundation Chapter 26 or any similar topic only for you Order Now † Seldon shook his head. â€Å"I cannot.† â€Å"If you change your mind, we will always have a place for you.† â€Å"I know it, Raych. We’ve been together for almost forty years-and they’ve been good years. Dors and I were lucky to find you.† â€Å"I’m the lucky one.† His eyes filled with tears. â€Å"Don’t think I don’t think of Mother every day.† â€Å"Yes.† Seldon looked away miserably. Wanda was playing with Bellis when the call rang out for everyone to board the hypership. They did, after a tearful last embrace of Wanda by her parents. Raych looked back to wave at Seldon and to try to plant a crooked smile on his face. Seldon waved and one hand moved out blindly to embrace Wanda’s shoulders. She was the only one left. One by one through his long life, he had lost his friends and those he had loved. Demerzel had left, never to return; Emperor Cleon was gone; his beloved Dors was gone; his faithful friend Yugo Amaryl was gone; and now Raych, his only son, was gone as well. He was left only with Wanda. 11 Hari Seldon said, â€Å"It is beautiful outside-a marvelous evening. Considering that we live under a dome, you would think we would have beautiful weather like this every evening.† Wanda said indifferently, â€Å"We would grow tired of it, Grandpa, if it were beautiful all the time. A little change from night to night is good for us.† â€Å"For you, because you’re young, Wanda. You have many, many evenings ahead of you. I don’t. I want more good ones.† â€Å"Now, Grandpa, you’re not old. Your leg is doing well and your mind m as sharp as ever. I know. â€Å" â€Å"Sure. Go ahead. Make me feel better.† He then said with an air of discomfort, â€Å"I want to walk. I want to get out of this tiny apartment and take a walk to the Library and enjoy this beautiful evening.† â€Å"What do you want at the Library?† â€Å"At the moment, nothing. I want the walk. But†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"Yes. But?† â€Å"I promised Raych I wouldn’t go walking around Trantor without a bodyguard.† â€Å"Raych isn’t here.† â€Å"I know,† mumbled Seldon â€Å"but a promise is a promise.† â€Å"He didn’t say who the bodyguard should be, did he? Let’s go for a walk and I’ll be your bodyguard.† â€Å"You?† Seldon grinned. â€Å"Yes, me. I hereby volunteer my services. Get yourself ready and we’ll go for a walk.† Seldon was amused. He had half a mind to go without his cane, since his leg was scarcely painful of late, but, on the other hand, he had a new cane, one in which the head had been filled with lead. It was both heavier and stronger than his old cane and, if he was going to have none other than Wanda as a bodyguard, he thought he had better bring his new cane. The walk was delightful and Seldon was terribly glad he had given in to the temptation-until they reached a certain spot. Seldon lifted his cane in a mixture of anger and resignation and said, â€Å"Look at that!† Wanda lifted her eyes. The dome was glowing, as it always did in the evening, in order to lend an air of first twilight. It grew darker as night went on, of course. What Seldon was pointing at, however, was a strip of darkness along the dome. A section of lights had gone out. Seldon said, â€Å"When I first came to Trantor, anything like that was unthinkable. There were people tending the lights at all times. The city worked, but now it is falling apart in all these little ways and what bothers me most is that no one cares. Why aren’t there petitions to the Imperial Palace? Why aren’t there meetings of indignation? It is as though the people of Trantor expect the city to be falling apart and then they find themselves annoyed with me because I am pointing out that this is exactly what is happening.† Wanda said softly, â€Å"Grandpa, there are two men behind us.† They had walked into the shadows beneath the broken dome lights and Seldon asked, â€Å"Are they just walking?† â€Å"No.† Wanda did not look at them. She did not have to. â€Å"They’re after you.† â€Å"Can you stop them-push them?† â€Å"I’m trying, but there are two and they are determined. It’s-it’s like pushing a wall.† â€Å"How far behind me are they?† â€Å"About three meters.† â€Å"Closing in?† â€Å"Yes, Grandpa.† â€Å"Tell me when they’re a meter behind me.† He slid his hand down his cane till he was holding the thin end, leaving the leaded head swinging free. â€Å"Now, Grandpa!† hissed Wanda. And Seldon turned, swinging his cane. It came down hard upon the shoulder of one of the men behind him, who went down with a scream, writhing on the pavement. Seldon said, â€Å"Where’s the other guy?† â€Å"He took off.† Seldon looked down on the man on the ground and put his foot on his chest. He said, â€Å"Go through his pockets, Wanda. Someone must have paid him and I’d like to find his credit file-perhaps I can identify where they came from.† He added thoughtfully, â€Å"I meant to hit him on the head.† â€Å"You’d have killed him, Grandpa.† Seldon nodded. â€Å"It’s what I wanted to do. Rather shameful. I’m lucky I missed.† A harsh voice said, â€Å"What is all this?† A figure in uniform came running up, perspiring. â€Å"Give me that cane, you!† â€Å"Officer,† said Seldon mildly. â€Å"You can give me your story later. We’ve got to call an ambulance for this poor man.† â€Å"Poor man, † said Seldon angrily. â€Å"He was going to assault me. I acted in self-defense.† â€Å"I saw it happen,† said the security officer. â€Å"This guy never laid a finger on you. You turned on him and struck him without provocation. That’s not self-defense. That’s assault and battery.† â€Å"Officer, I’m telling you that-â€Å" â€Å"Don’t tell me anything. You can tell it in court.† Wanda said in a sweet small voice, â€Å"Officer, if you will just listen to us-â€Å" The officer said, â€Å"You go along home, young lady.† Wanda drew herself up. â€Å"I most certainly won’t, Officer. Where my grandfather goes, there go I.† Her eyes flashed and the security officer muttered, â€Å"Well, come along, then.† 18 Seldon was enraged. â€Å"I’ve never been in custody before in my entire life. A couple of months ago eight men assaulted me. I was able to fight them off with the help of my son, but while that was going on was there a security officer in sight? Did people stop to help me? No. This time, I’m better prepared and I knocked a man flat who had been about to assault me. Was there a security officer in sight? Absolutely. She put the collar on me. There were people watching, too, and they were amused at seeing an old man being taken in for assault and battery. What kind of world do we live on?† Civ Novker, Seldon’s lawyer, sighed and said calmly, â€Å"A corrupt world, but don’t worry. Nothing will happen to you. I’ll get you out on bail and then, eventually, you’ll come back for trial before a jury of your peers and the most you’ll get-the very most-are some hard words from the bench. Your age and your reputation-â€Å" â€Å"Forget my reputation,† said Seldon, still angry. â€Å"I’m a psychohistorian and, at the present time, that is a dirty word. They’ll be glad to see me in jail.† â€Å"No, they won’t,† said Novker. â€Å"There may be some screwballs who have it in for you, but I’ll see to it that none of them gets on the jury.† Wanda said, â€Å"Do we really have to subject my grandfather to all this? He’s not a young man anymore. Can’t we just appear before the magistrate and not bother with a jury trial?† The lawyer turned to her. â€Å"It can be done. If you’re insane, maybe. Magistrates are impatient power-mad people who would just as soon put a person into jail for a year as listen to him. No one goes up before a magistrate.† â€Å"I think we should,† said Wanda. Seldon said, â€Å"Well now, Wanda, I think we ought to listen to Civ-† But as he said that, he felt a strong churning in his abdomen. It was Wanda’s â€Å"push.† Seldon said, â€Å"Well-if you insist.† â€Å"She can’t insist,† said the lawyer. â€Å"I won’t allow it.† Wanda said, â€Å"My grandfather is your client. If he wants something done his way, you’ve got to do it.† â€Å"I can refuse to represent him.† â€Å"Well then, leave,† said Wanda sharply, â€Å"and we’ll face the magistrate alone.† Novker thought and said, â€Å"Very well, then-if you’re going to be so adamant. I’ve represented Hari for years and I suppose I won’t abandon him now. But I warn you, the chances are he’ll get a jail sentence and I’ll have to work like the devil to get it lifted-if I can do it.at all.† â€Å"I’m not afraid,† said Wanda. Seldon bit his lip and the lawyer turned to him. â€Å"What about you? Are you willing to let your granddaughter call the shots?† Seldon thought a bit, then admitted, much to the old lawyer’s surprise, â€Å"Yes. Yes, I am.† 19 The magistrate looked sourly at Seldon as he gave his story. The magistrate said, â€Å"What makes you think it was the intention of this man you struck to attack you? Did he strike you? Did he threaten you? Did he in any way place you under bodily fear?† â€Å"My granddaughter was aware of his approach and was quite certain that he was planning to attack me.† â€Å"Surely, sir, that cannot be enough. Is there anything else you can tell me before I pass judgment?† â€Å"Well now, wait a while,† said Seldon indignantly. â€Å"Don’t pass judgment so quickly. I was assaulted a few weeks ago by eight men whom I held off with the help of my son. So, you see, I have reason to think that I might be assaulted again.† The magistrate shuffled his papers. â€Å"Assaulted by eight men. Did you report that?† â€Å"There were no security officers around. Not one.† â€Å"Aside from the point. Did you report it?† â€Å"No, sir.† â€Å"Why not?† â€Å"For one thing, I was afraid of getting into long drawn-out legal proceedings. Since we had driven off eight men and were safe, it seemed useless to ask for more trouble.† â€Å"How did you manage to ward off eight men just you and your son?† Seldon hesitated. â€Å"My son is now on Santanni and outside Trantorian control. Thus, I can tell you that he had Dahlite knives and was expert in their use. He killed one man and badly hurt two others. The rest ran, carrying off the dead and wounded.† â€Å"But did you not report the death of a man and the wounding of two others?† â€Å"No, sir. Same reason as before. And we fought in self-defense. However, if you can track down the three dead and wounded, you will have evidence that we were attacked.† The magistrate said, â€Å"Track down one dead and two wounded nameless faceless Trantorians? Are you aware that on Trantor over two thousand people are found dead every day-by knife wounds alone. Unless these things are reported to us at once, we are helpless. Your story of being assaulted once before will not hold water. What we must do is deal with the events of today, which were reported and which had a security officer as a witness. â€Å"So, let’s consider the situation as of now. Why do you think the fellow was going to attack? Simply because you happened to be passing by? Because you seemed old and defenseless? Because you looked like you might be carrying a great deal of credits? What do you think?† â€Å"I think, Magistrate, it was because of who I am.† The magistrate looked at his papers. â€Å"You are Hari Seldon, a professor and a scholar. Why should that make you subject to assault, particularly?† â€Å"Because of my views.† â€Å"Your views. Well-† The magistrate shuffled some papers perfunctorily. Suddenly he stopped and looked up, peering at Seldon. â€Å"Wait-Hari Seldon.† A look of recognition spread across his face. â€Å"You’re the psychohistory buff, aren’t you?† â€Å"Yes, Magistrate.† â€Å"I’m sorry. I don’t know anything about it except the name and the fact that you go around predicting the end of the Empire or something like that.† â€Å"Not quite, Magistrate. But my views have become unpopular because they are proving to be true. I believe it is for that reason that there are those who want to assault me or, even more likely, are being paid to assault me.† The magistrate stared at Seldon and then called over the arresting security officer. â€Å"Did you check up on the man who was hurt? Does he have a record?† The security officer cleared her throat. â€Å"Yes, sir. He’s been arrested several times. Assault, mugging.† â€Å"Oh, he’s a repeat offender, is he? And does the professor have a record?† â€Å"No, sir.† â€Å"So we have an old and innocent man fighting off a known mugger-and you arrest the old and innocent man. Is that it?† The security officer was silent. The magistrate said, â€Å"You may go, Professor.† â€Å"Thank you, sir. May I have my cane?† The magistrate snapped his fingers at the officer, who handed over the cane. â€Å"But one thing, Professor,† said the magistrate. â€Å"If you use that cane again, you had better be absolutely certain you can prove it was in self-defense. Otherwise-â€Å" â€Å"Yes, sir.† And Hari Seldon left the magistrate’s chambers, leaning heavily on his cane but with his head held high. 20 Wanda was crying bitterly, her face wet with tears, her eyes red, her cheeks swollen. Hari Seldon hovered over her, patting her on the back, not knowing quite how to comfort her. â€Å"Grandpa, I’m a miserable failure. I thought I could push people and I could when they didn’t mind being pushed too much, like Mom and Dad-and even then it took a long time. I even worked out a rating system of sorts, based on a ten-point scale-sort of a mental pushing power gauge. Only I assumed too much. I assumed that I was a ten, or at least a nine. But now I realize that, at most, I rate a seven.† Wanda’s crying had stopped and she sniffed occasionally as Hari stroked her hand. â€Å"Usually-usually-I have no trouble. If I concentrate, I can hear people’s thoughts and when I want, I push them. But those muggers! I could hear them all right, but there was nothing I could do to push them away.† â€Å"I thought you did very well, Wanda.† â€Å"I didn’t. I had a fan-fantasy. I thought people would come up behind you and in one mighty push I’d send them flying. That way I was going to be your bodyguard. That’s why I offered to be your bod-bodyguard. Only I wasn’t. Those two guys came up and I couldn’t do a thing.† â€Å"But you could. You made the first man hesitate. That gave me a chance to turn and clobber him.† â€Å"No no. I had nothing to do with it. All I could do was warn you he was there and you did the rest.† â€Å"The second man ran away.† â€Å"Because you clobbered the first guy. I had nothing to do with it.† She broke out again in tears of frustration. â€Å"And then the magistrate. I insisted on the magistrate. I thought I would push and he would let you go at once.† â€Å"He did let me go and it was practically at once.† â€Å"No. He put you through a miserable routine and saw the light only when he realized who you were. I had nothing to do with it. I flopped everywhere. I could have gotten you into so much trouble.† â€Å"No, I refuse to accept that, Wanda. If your pushing didn’t work quite as well as you had hoped it would, it was only because you were working under emergency conditions. You couldn’t have helped it. But, Wanda, look-I have an idea.† Catching the excitement in his voice, she looked up. â€Å"What kind of idea, Grandpa?† â€Å"Well, it’s like this, Wanda. You probably realize that I’ve got to have credits. Psychohistory simply can’t continue without it and I cannot bear the thought of having it all come to nothing after so many years of hard work.† â€Å"I can’t bear it, either. But how can we get the credits?† â€Å"Well, I’m going to request an audience with the Emperor again. I’ve seen him once already and he’s a good man and I like him. But he’s not exactly drowning in wealth. However, if I take you with me and if you push him-gently-it may be that he will find a source of credits, some source somewhere, and keep me going for a while, till I can think of something else.† â€Å"Do you really think it will work, Grandpa?† â€Å"Not without you. But with you-maybe. Come, isn’t it worth trying?† Wanda smiled. â€Å"You know I’ll do anything you ask, Grandpa. Besides, it’s our only hope.† 21 It was not difficult to see the Emperor. Agis’s eyes sparkled as he greeted Hari Seldon. â€Å"Hello, old friend,† he said. â€Å"Have you come to bring me bad luck?† â€Å"I hope not,† said Seldon. Agis unhooked the elaborate cloak he was wearing and, with a weary grunt, threw it into the corner of the room, saying, â€Å"And you lie there.† He looked at Seldon and shook his head. â€Å"I hate that thing. It’s as heavy as sin and as hot as blazes. I always have to wear it when I’m being smothered under meaningless words, standing there upright like a carved image. It’s just plain horrible. Cleon was born to it and he had the appearance for it. I was not and I don’t. It’s just my misery that I’m a third cousin of his on my mother’s side so that I qualified as Emperor. I’d be glad to sell it for a very small sum. Would you like to be Emperor, Hari?† â€Å"No no, I wouldn’t dream of it, so don’t get your hopes up,† said Seldon, laughing. â€Å"But tell me, who is this extraordinarily beautiful young woman you have brought with you today?† Wanda flushed and the Emperor said genially, â€Å"You mustn’t let me embarrass you, my dear. One of the few perquisites** an Emperor possesses is the right to say anything he chooses. No one can object or argue about it. They can only say, ‘Sire.’ However, I don’t want any ‘Sires’ from you. I hate that word. Call me Agis. That is not my birth name, either. It’s my Imperial name and I’ve got to get used to it. So†¦ tell me what’s doing, Hari. What’s been happening to you since the last time we met?† Seldon said briefly, â€Å"I’ve been attacked twice.† The Emperor didn’t seem to be sure whether this was a joke or not. He said, â€Å"Twice? Really?† The Emperor’s face darkened as Seldon told the story of the assaults. â€Å"I suppose there wasn’t a security officer around when those eight men threatened you.† â€Å"Not one.† The Emperor rose from his chair and gestured at the other two to keep theirs. He walked back and forth, as though he were trying to work off some anger. Then he turned and faced Seldon. â€Å"For thousands of years,† he began, â€Å"whenever something like this happened, people would say, ‘Why don’t we appeal to the Emperor?’ or `Why doesn’t the Emperor do something?’ And, in the end, the Emperor can do something and does do something, even if it isn’t always the intelligent thing to do. But I†¦ Hari, I’m powerless. Absolutely powerless. â€Å"Oh yes, there is the so-called Commission of Public Safety, but they seem more concerned with my safety than that of the public. It’s a wonder we’re having this audience at all, for you are not at all popular with the Commission. â€Å"There’s nothing I can do about anything. Do you know what’s happened to the status of the Emperor since the fall of the junta and the restoration of-hah!-Imperial power?† â€Å"I think I do.† â€Å"I’ll bet you don’t-fully. We’ve got democracy now. Do you know what democracy is?† â€Å"Certainly.† Agis frowned. He said, â€Å"I’ll bet you think it’s a good thing.† â€Å"I think it can be a good thing.† â€Å"Well, there you are. It isn’t. It’s completely upset the Empire. â€Å"Suppose I want to order more officers onto the streets of Trantor. In the old days, I would pull over a piece of paper prepared for me by the Imperial Secretary and would sign it with a flourish-and there would be more security officers. â€Å"Now I can’t do anything of the sort. I have to put it before the Legislature. There are seventy-five hundred men and women who instantly turn into uncounted gaggles of geese the instant a suggestion is made. In the first place, where is the funding to come from? You can’t have, say, ten thousand more officers without having to pay ten thousand more salaries. Then, even if you agreed to something of the sort, who selects the new security officers? Who controls them? â€Å"The Legislature shouts at each other, argues, thunders, and lightens, and in the end-nothing is done. Hari, I couldn’t even do as small a thing as fix the broken dome lights you noticed. How much will it cost? Who’s in charge? Oh, the lights will be fixed, but it can easily take a few months to do it. That’s democracy.† Hari Seldon said, â€Å"As I recall, the Emperor Cleon was forever complaining that he could not do what he wished to do.† â€Å"The Emperor Cleon,† said Agis impatiently, â€Å"had two first-class First Ministers-Demerzel and yourself-and you each labored to keep Cleon from doing anything foolish. I have seventy-five hundred First Ministers, all of whom are foolish from start to finish. But surely, Hari, you haven’t come to complain to me about the attacks.† â€Å"No, I haven’t. Something much worse. Sire-Agis-I need credits.† The Emperor stared at him. â€Å"After what I’ve been telling you, Hari? I have no credits. Oh yes, there’re credits to run this establishment, of course, but in order to get them I have to face my seventy-five hundred legislators. If you think I can go to them and say, `I want credits for my friend, Hari Seldon’ and if you think I’ll get one quarter of what I ask for in anything less than two years, you’re crazy. It won’t happen.† He shrugged and said, more gently, â€Å"Don’t get me wrong, Hari. I would like to help you if I could. I would particularly like to help you for the sake of your granddaughter. Looking at her makes me feel as though I should give you all the credits you would like-but it can’t be done.† Seldon said, â€Å"Agis, if I don’t get funding, psychohistory will go down the drain-after nearly forty years.† â€Å"It’s come to nothing in nearly forty years, so why worry?† â€Å"Agis,† said Seldon â€Å"there’s nothing more I can do now. The assaults on me were precisely because I’m a psychohistorian. People consider me a predictor of destruction.† The Emperor nodded. â€Å"You’re bad luck, Raven Seldon. I told you this earlier.† Seldon stood up wretchedly. â€Å"I’m through, then.† Wanda stood, too, next to Seldon the top of her head reaching her grandfather’s shoulder. She gazed fixedly at the Emperor. As Hari turned to go, the Emperor said, â€Å"Wait. Wait. There’s a little verse I once memorized: ‘ Ill fares the land To hastening ills a prey Where wealth accumulates And men decay.’ â€Å" â€Å"What does it mean?† asked a dispirited Seldon. â€Å"It means that the Empire is steadily deteriorating and falling apart, but that doesn’t keep some individuals from growing rich. Why not turn to some of our wealthy entrepreneurs? They don’t have legislators and can, if they wish, simply sign a credit voucher.† Seldon stared. â€Å"I’ll try that.† How to cite Forward the Foundation Chapter 26, Essay examples

Importance of Satellites in Maritime Domain free essay sample

The launch of Sputnik satellite by USSR on 4th October 1957, was the start of space age. More than 4500 objects have been launched beyond the earth’s atmosphere in the 54 years and about 1100 are actively orbiting. This reflects the realities of the era where information dominance has become synonymous with power. Forces on land, sea and air, missile launches, detection of radars, direction of weapons after launch can be detected by satellites-spies in the sky. These satellites can provide information to navigate with accuracy, to communicate with certainty, to strike with precision and to see the battlefield with clarity. Presently, space has become an integral component of any military planning and satellites are used for force enhancement in form of surveillance, reconnaissance, communications, navigation, missile warning. 2. Due to emerging and diversified nature of maritime warfare, maritime operations conducted on, under, or over the sea are becoming technologically and operationally challenging day after day. Maritime security has become a hot issue of the world for the past two decades. Navies from all over the world are trying to find methods and apply strategies that will enforce passive or sometimes active measures, in order to ensure maritime safety in both territorial and international waters. Vigilance is a priority, especially when the sea lines of communication (SLOC) are the ways where our adversary and terrorists use in their own interests. In this complex maritime warfare, it is pivotal to continuously maintain recognized maritime picture (RMP) using all available resources. 3. The Indian Ocean has always been the hub of International power politics due to its strategic location, inherent rich natural resources and vital trade routes. We have witnessed that the Indian Ocean in general and Arabian Sea in particular has become the theatre for the power struggle in the 21st century. PN participation in Maritime Interdiction Operations, Counter Piracy deployment, and recent terrorist attacks on PN personnel and assets has further enhanced our reasonability to be more vigilant and maintain a maritime situational awareness in the Area of Responsibility (AOR). To aintain maritime situational awareness in maritime warfare, satellite technology is being used effectively by various countries of the world including India for civilian and military purposes. IMPORTANCE OF SATELLITES Space is a domain, like air, land and sea and it has become a critical part in every other battlefield. The experiments have begun in the space domain due to the fact that space is by far the most efficient area to apply new technologies that need to be shared worldwide through operation centers. The quest for dominance of ultimate high group, the space, is no more restricted to global powers. In strategic terms, it is now equally relevant to regional players. Freedom to access space or space based system is analogous to freedom at sea. If a country cannot dominate space, its naval-based systems will have little relevance in defending its territorial integrity and freedom. Space programmes can be used for both civilian and military purposes. Orbital imagers and communications satellites are prime examples of dual-use technologies. Present day satellites are capable of providing resolution of less than 10 cm i. e. the satellites are able to differentiate between the objects which are 10 cm apart. Satellites serve as a tool for acquiring vital information in diverse fields of interest like communications, weather forecasting, television broadcasting, navigation, reconnaissance and for searching new resources on earth. Satellites are also extensively used to detect and record radio and radar transmissions while over foreign territory enabling location of missile defence radar systems and deduction of their performance/characteristics. It is prudent to mention that there are at least four types of satellites which are very important to Maritime warfare. TYPES OF SATELLITES AND LATEST ADVANCEMENTS IN SATELLITE TECHNOLOGY They are as follows: a. Military Communications satellites b. Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites c. Radio Intercept satellites Electronic Eavesdropping d. Surveillance satellites Spies in the sky MILITARY COMMUNICATION SATELLITES During the Iraq war in 2003, more than 80% of the communications used by the Allied forces were carried out by communication satellites. The technology of satellites made it possible for a war in Asia to be directed from thousands of kilometers away. Ships far out at sea provided support in the form of planes, cruise missiles, helicopters, and personnel. Satellites provided secure and reliable communications and made it possible to coordinate various operations conducted by these widely scattered forces. GPS SATELLITES Satellites can be used for targeting. Missiles, shells and bombs all are now outfitted with GPS receivers enabling them to steer a precise course to a predefined target. GPS satellites have made it possible in first Gulf war to drop a single bomb instead of 10 bombs which were previously required on a average to destroy a target with a consequential reduction in collateral damage. RADIO INTERCEPT SATELLITES-ELECTRONIC EAVESDROPPING The use of specialized satellites to eavesdrop on radio communications (COMMINT) and to analyse radar and other military singals (SIGNIT) is still shrouded in secrecy. Location of wanted person can be obtained via satellites nowadays. SURVEILLANCE SATELLITES – SPIES IN THE SKY Satellites fly across the sky unimpeded by borders. Surveillance satellites carrying cameras with long telescope attached explicitly seeking military information are called spy satellites. If they have a suitable radio receiver they can listen in as well to whatever radio signals are being transmitted below, and this sort of satellite usually has a military objective. Modern spy satellites take pictures at a distance of 250 km or more through a telescope. It takes images automatically to a predetermined schedule. The images may be radioed to ground immediately subjected that friendly ground station is within the sight of the satellite. Spy satellites are made to ‘see it all, see it well and see it now’. See it all meant wide area coverage, see it well meant high resolution and see it now meant a system that got the images to the photo-interpreter in minutes not days. Present day spy satellites resolve objects on the earth’s surface of about 10 cm (4 inches) in size from an altitude of 250 Km. During the Cold War, the main role of spy satellites was strategic, now the priority of spy satellites gradually changes from strategic to tactical. The tactical requirements of forces engaged in regional wars are much more immediate and explicit. The modern way to address those requirements is to use unmanned aircraft (UAV). Spy satellites remain the only way to get information deep inside another country without the permission of its government and without creating a diplomatic incident. They can detect large-scale troop movements, and thus act as a trip wire to alert neighboring governments to impeding attack. The advance warning given by satellite images allows time for diplomatic initiatives to prevent war or at worst to allow the adversary to prepare its forces to defend against the massing troops. Surveillance satellites reduce the occurrence of military false alarms, and they provide the factor of time that eliminates hair-trigger control of weapons of mass destruction. India-Pakistan, Israel-Arab, Iraq-Iran, North and South Korea, China-Taiwan are some of the flash points that could easily escalate into a regional or even world conflict. Surveillance satellites play an important role in keeping these flash points from blowing up into major confrontations. Most of the countries with a nuclear force also have spy satellites. These satellites allow them to avoid the hair trigger approach to nuclear weapon control, and rely to a great extent instead on unambiguous information about the deployment of its adversary’s forces, both conventional and nuclear. INDIAN SATELLITE AMBITIONS The early 21st century saw India strike out in new directions. Although India’s first satellite, Aryabhata, was launched in 1980. Indian space ambitions grew at such a pace that the country was able to challenge both its Asian rivals, China and Japan, with a lunar program. India at last achieved the vision outlined in the 1960s of not only building its own geosynchronous communication satellites, but launching them itsels through a new powerful launcher, the GSLV, making it fully slefsufficient in its space technology. This paved the way for India to send its own astronauts into space, making it one of the space superpowers and an Asian challenge to China. India ranks fifth in the realm of spy satellite after US, Russia, France and China. Although countries like UK, Germany and Japan have orbiting satellites, out of these a few of them are spy satellites but for intelligence and reconnaissance they depend on the United States. Despite limited resources, India has and is continuing to develop a broad based space programme with indigenous launch vehicles, satellites, control facilities and data processing. Since its first satellite was orbited by the USSR in 1975 and its first domestic space launch was conducted in 1980, India has become a true space country. Present generation Indian remote sensing and communication satellites are comparable to many space systems produced by USA, Russia or France. The Indian Space Research Organisation was founded in 1969 and is currently under the department of space. The activities related to satellites, launch vehicles and applications are carried out at numerous centres throughout the country. The Indian satellite programme spans over a wide range of activities from communication to remote sensing satellites, it is the remote sensing satellite capability equipped with high resolution space based imagery that will be deliberated upon during this seminars. Over the last three decades, India has achieved an enviable progress in the space systems. The space programme has become largely self-reliant with capability to design and build its own satellites for providing space services. Salient of the Space programme will be covered shortly to understand their implications on Pakistan. INDIAN SATELLITE CAPABILITY India invested heavily in satellite technology and had launched its first satellite named Aryabhata on 19 April 1975 and it worked until April 1980. India’s second satellite, Bhaskhara 1, launched on 7 June 1979 and carried two low-resolution television cameras with a resolution of 1km. Bhaskhara 2 was launched in June 1981 into the orbit and burned up on 30 Nov 1991. Both the satellites were constructed by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited. The Indian space research includes two agencies, Indian National Satellite (INSAT) and the Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) Satellites. First the INSAT. This includes: a. INSAT-I . INSAT-1 provided geostationary platforms for simultaneous domestic communications and earth observation functions. The INSAT-1 system is a multi-purpose satellite, including telecommunication and television broadcasts. In addition it also provides a detailed weather and disaster-warning service. b. INSAT 2 Series. These were indigenously produced and later versions were planned to be carried by Indias own GSLV launcher. It has a Very High Resolution Radiometer (VHRR) with imaging in Visible, Thermal Infrared and Water Vapour channels. A Charge Coupled Device (CCD) camera provides 11 km ground resolution in the Visible, near Infrared and Shortwave Infrared bands. INSAT 3 SERIES c. INSAT-3AThis multipurpose satellite was launched in April 2003. The payload, besides many other accessories for communication purposes, houses VHRR, a CCD camera and a Satellite Aided Search and Rescue (SASR) system which acts as a relay for signals from distress beacons in sea, air or land. e. INSAT-3BLaunched in March 2000, it incorporates a Mobile Satellite Services (MSS) payload with forward link between the hub and mobile station. f. INSAT-3C Launched in January 2002, INSAT-3C payloads include 24 Normal C-band transponders and an MSS payload similar to that on INSAT-3B. g. INSAT-3E Launched in September 2003, it carries a communication payload. h. KALPANA-1It is an exclusive meteorological satellite launched by PSLV in September 2002. It carries VHRR and DRT payloads to provide meteorological services. j. INSAT-4ALaunched in December 2005 by the European Ariane launch vehicle, it provides a coverage polygon with footprint covering Indian main land with expanded radiation patterns encompassing Indian geographical boundary, area beyond India in southeast and northwest regions. k. INSAT-4CR The GSLV-F04 housing the 4CR was launched successfully on 2nd September 2007. It is the largest satellite launched by an Indian launcher so far and houses state of the art gadgetry for communication and surveillance. l. GSAT-2Launched in May 2003, GSAT-2 carries four Normal C-band, two Ku-band transponders and an MSS payload similar to those on INSAT-3B. m. EDUSAT Configured for audio-visual medium employing digital interactive classroom lessons and multimedia content, EDUSAT was launched in September 2004 and designed to cater for educational requirements. n. HAMSAT Launched in May 2005, HAMSAT is an application-specific micro-satellite designed to provide satellite based Radio Amateur Services. SATELLITE NAVIGATION The Indian Government approved the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS), consisting of a seven satellite constellation – three in Geo Stationary Orbit (GSO) and four in Near-GSO. IRNSS management structure for system implementation has been established and detailed system definition work has begun. IRNSS is expected to provide position accuracies comparable to the declared position accuracies by other global constellations in a region centred over India and extending to adjoining areas. MASTER CONTROL FACILITY (MCF) MCF provides ‘in orbit operation’ of geostationary satellites. 7 are controlled from MCF Hassan and two from MCF Bhopal. MCF Hassan has an integrated facility consisting of seven satellite control earth stations. MCF, Bhopal, is configured with 11 m diameter full motion antenna and three 7. 2 m diameter limited motion antenna. IRS INDIAN REMOTE SENSING SATELLITE The IRS is Indias first domestic dedicated earth resources satellite program and an element of the national natural resource management system. IRS is an Indian program to develop an indigenous capability to image earth, the Indian Ocean region in general and Pakistan and India in particular. Its mission is ground water exploration, land use, forest flood mapping. The IRS series includes IRS 1 and IRS P series. First IRS 1 series:- a. IRS-1A Launched on 17 march 1988, it is used for monitoring land and sea resources. It has a resolution of 36 m with a revisit time of 11 days. b. IRS-1B It was launched on 29 August 1991. It is also used for monitoring land and sea resources. Its capabilities are similar to IRS-1A. c. IRS-1C It was launched on 28 December 1995. Excellent for large-area monitoring, its ground resolution is 10 m with a revisit time of 6 days. d. IRS-1D Launched in September 1997, IRS-1D using the PSLV was placed in an elliptical orbit, instead of a circular orbit. It is being used to map and monitor calamities. Its ground resolution is 5. 8 m with a revisit time of 5 days. e. IRS-1ELaunched on 20 September 1993, it was the first Indian indigenous effort to place any satellite in sun-synchronous orbital. This mission was a failure. f. IRS-P2 It was launched on 15 October 1994. It is used to complement IRS series and oceanography. g. IRS-P3 IRS-P3 was launched on 21 march 1996. This was the third test launch of the PSLV. Its ground resolution is 188 m. h. IRS-P4 Also known as OCEANSAT-1, it was launched successfully on 26 May 1999 for gathering information related to water vapour and conducting fisheries survey and development of a fisheries forecast model. Its ground resolution is 188 m. g. IRS-P5. Also known as the CARTOSAT, it was launched on 22 Oct 2001. It is intended for cartographic applications and is reported to have a pan camera with a resolution of 1 2. 5 meters. It has a revisit time of 5 days. h. IRS-P6 It was launched in October 2003. Also known as the RESOURCESAT-1, the IRS-P6, is reported to have a high resolution multi-spectral camera with 5. m resolution. j. IRS-P7 The eleventh in the IRS series known as CARTOSAT-1. It was launched on 5th May 2005. It is for cartographic purposes provided with 2 panchromatic cameras with 2. 5 m resolution. It would take one year (125 data days) to map our country with an average 14 orbits per day. This image shows the first picture taken by cartosat-1 and presented to the president of India. k. Technology Experiment Satellite (TES) Launched in Oct 01, TES demonstrates and validate technologies that could be used in the future cartographic atellite missions. This includes phased array antenna, improved satellite positioning system and two-mirror-on-axis camera optics. TES also carries a panchromatic camera with a spatial resolution of 1 m. l. CARTOSAT-2 Launched by PSLV-C7 on January 10, 2007, CARTOSAT-2 is an advanced remote sensing satellite carrying a panchromatic camera capable of providing scene specific spot imageries. This camera is designed to provide imageries with one meter spatial resolution and a swath of 10 km. The satellite is configured for multi-scene imaging capability. Another remarkable achievement by the Indian Space program is that it has attained the ability to launch satellites using its own space launching vehicles. INDIAN SPACE LAUNCH VEHICLES India has created an impressive space capability without vast funding or detailed foreign assistance. It has a range of launch vehicles able to place surveillance satellites into relatively low orbit and communications satellites into geostationary orbit. From 1972 to 1980, the Indian satellites were placed in the orbit by using soviet boosters, however, from eighties onwards, Indians concentrated on the development of launcher and propulsion units. In early eighties, Indians developed indigenous SLVs which could carry a small satellite weighing around 40 kgs. During late eighties Indians developed augmented space launched Vehicles or ASLVs capable of carrying around 150 kgs. ASLVs were used till 1994. India developed Polar SLVs during the mid nineties providing the capability of launching satellites into the sun synchronous orbits. Indians are now developing geo-synchronous SLVs. So far India has launched 03 GSLV series rockets. FUTURE INDIAN SPACE PROGRAMME India is poised to become the next space power of the world after America, Russia and China. New space launching sites and other ground facilities will be created during the next two decades. There are calls in India to prepare an affordable long-term plan to build space-based surveillance assets, theatre surveillance with unmanned air vehicles, stand-off plat-forms, precision guidance systems, and anti-missile defenses. 16. By year 2011, India plans to develop a space weapons for intercepting hostile satellites. It also envisions to create or modified missile defense systems to intercept satellites. India is also developing a â€Å"Kinetic Attack Loitering Interceptor† acronym â€Å"kali† based on civilian micro satellite technology. It’s a free lance satellite which could be used to collide with target satellites. In field of offensive satellite weapons, India is also working on laser technologies for military applications since the mid-1990s. India is interested in directed energy weapons and space-based lasers, and reportedly DRDO has allocated funds for this project. India plans to launch its first manned spaceship between 2011-12. India plans to compete with foreign commercial clients in space technology. Indian booster rockets are considerably cheaper than US launchers. The service time of an average Indian satellite is twice as long as that of its Russian counterpart. Space capsule recovery experiment was intended for demonstrating the capability to recover an orbiting space capsule. The test was successfully completed on 22 Jan 07 under project SRE-1. Chandrayan Pritham, India’s first moon mission, reached on the Moon successfully on 22nd October 2008 and she became the sixth country to reach the Moon, after US, Russia, Japan, Europe and China. Indian Space officials began to put together a second lunar mission, called Chandrayan-2 and is tentatively planned in 2012. Chandrayan-3 has been planned in 2015. By the 21st century, at a time when Japan found that it had to restrict its space ambitions, India had, by contrast, developed the self-confidence to make further steps forward, mounting its first deep space mission, Chandrayan, to the Moon and then carrying out the steps preparatory to manned flight. GSLV fulfilled a 30-year vision of self sufficiency in space domain. IMPLICATIONS FOR IOR/PN Unlike India, Pakistan lacks its own surveillance satellites. Presently we obtain imagery from commercial sources, which in recent years has included images with resolutions of better than 1m. These sources of imagery are adequate in peacetime, but it remains to be if-in time of tension with India-Pakistan will compelled to orbit a spy satellite of its own. The civil cooperation sought from NASA and Russian Space Programme was secretly diverted towards military applications. CIA is on the record to put ISRO in sensitive technology proliferation list for smuggling of space rocket design and super computers for missile programme under the garb of civil space exploration. As discussed, many space-based and satellite systems are inherently dual-use technologies, with both civilian and military applications. Civil communications satellites used for info and PSYOPS can also be applied to military communications. The information provided by navigation and meteorological satellites can be used by the military commanders for planning manoeuvres. Indian satellite programme, though mainly proclaimed as civilian, carries enormous potential for military planners and has serious implications for Pakistan. Remote-imaging, earth observation and surveillance satellites are potentially the most important of these dual-use space systems. There are many features that may be considered in characterising the usefulness of a satellite imaging system – as satellite imagery is the matter of immediate concern. Of all the features two remains vitally important; revisit time and the resolution. Revisit time may be defined as the elapsed time after which a satellite would pass over a particular point. The discussion of resolution can become highly complex but put in simple words it may be defined as the minimum separation between two similar objects needed for an imaging system to distinguish the objects as two rather than one. At present there are five Indian remote sensing satellites orbiting the earth in a sun-synchronous orbit. However, IRS -1D can be pointed off the orbit, which allows two to four days revisits to specific sites. Satellite imagery with onboard cameras is limited to day time only. However, IR sensors and radar may al11so be used during the dark hours but these facilities need sophisticated technology and are non-existent on the Indian remote sensing satellites at present. As regard the resolution, the Indian satellites, IRS-1C, 1D, 2A Cartosat-1 (P-5) and Resourcesat-1 (P-6) are capable of sending down images of 5. metres resolution. Though the present capabilities with 5. 8 metres resolution and sun synchronous satellites in the orbit provide valuable intelligence information, it is the future capability which is dreaded the most as it will severely tilt the military balance in India’s favour by providing images of 1 metre resolution and all round coverage with the help of a geo -synchronous satellite placed over the Arabian Sea. It implies that without sending any surveillance aircraft or ship, Indian Navy would be able to monitor with impunity every activity happening on the surface of north Arabian Sea. As apparent this would provide extremely valuable information to Indian navy and would at the same time severely degrade and limit the operating options that PN may otherwise have. Space has become the crucial theatre in which all future military conflicts would be decided. For the time being, India may not be able use weapons of destruction from space, although that day may well arrive sooner than expected, yet the information and the data necessary to conduct a major war on earth, now depends almost entirely on the satellites orbiting the planet. Use of such information for target acquisition during Kargil crisis, is a case in point. In addition India has the facilities of LAND Satellite of USA, SPOT satellite of France, COSMOS of Russia and OFEQ and EROS of Israel. The resolution of these satellites is considered to be sufficient for pinpointing strategic defence installations, natural or man-made obstacles, large missile sites, armour concentration, precise airfield locations and other built up areas. These satellites provide Indians with a better-centralized command and control over her military forces. The meteorological data received through these satellites has tremendous military applications for obvious reasons. Additionally mapping of the sub continent through these satellites would provide India with an accurate cartographic picture for the launching of its long-range ballistic missiles. In addition, following are the military purposes, which would conversely high light the implications for IOR in general and PN in particular are: a. India, with a series of spy satellites for continuous surveillance of Indian ocean / Pakistani territory, can detect any major mobilisation of troops and pin pointing ships in harbour or at sea. . India can map and find the depth of creeks and shallows in Arabian sea for future naval operation against Pakistan in sub-surface and amphibious domains. c. Indian satellites with EW and SIGINT pay load would be posing the greatest threat to Pakistan. It can effectively intercept and in future can jam the signal and radar transmissions, not to mention v ulnerability of our microwave and digital communications. d. India, in collaboration with US space agencies, may be able to detect submarines by blue/green lasers. e. India is able to carryout intelligence of all types of equipments and infrastructure especially relating to coastal defence, jetties and harbours for naval operations. f. India can pinpoint VAs and VPs which can be later used for strategic targeting. g. Ensuring continuous flow of information for updating the battlefield at various military Headquarters. h. To carryout Continuous monitoring of build up and movement of logistics. j. Provision of essential guidance data for missiles. k. India can carryout BDA (Battle Damage Assessments) for economy of efforts and further attacks planning. l. The missile attack by own submarines can be monitored thus providing some early warning to India. m. Improved command and control system will enhance performance of Indian armed forces. Resulting in increased coordination through network centric capabilities. OPTIONS AVAILABLE TO PAKISTAN/PN AND SATELLITE COUNTERMEASURES Satellites especially surveillance satellites had the greatest impact on human history of any form of space activity in the past 54 years. Satellites seem expensive but time has proven that they are the most cost-effective options for achieving objectives of communication, surveillance, weather forecasting etc. A small fleet of satellites is more effective than a similarly priced suite of ships, buoys, and weather stations. Keeping in view the fast pace of Indian satellite programme, here the panel would like to propose options in terms of long and short term measures. a. Option 1. As a long term measure indigenous satellite be launched at the earliest which would have following advantages: Advantages. (1)Speedy and reliable means of communication. (2)Security aspect is well covered as the satellite will be indigenously built. (3)Availability during war time. 4)Control of the satellite will be in our hands. b. Option 2. As a short term measure Pakistan should continue using the hired satellite services from other countries. However, this would have following disadvantages: Disadvantages. (1)High cost (2)Less secure as services may be security compromised. (3)Dependency on others. (4)Less assurance during war time. COUNTERMEASURES Countermeasures against satellites reconnaissance are fairly limited. Of the possible measures that could be used in the future, passive measures are immediately available and are not inherently provocative. The application of camouflage, concealment, and deception to hide military forces and to obstruct the overhead viewing of other strategic assets may provide some protection against satellite reconnaissance. Over land the camouflage may work to some extent but the options are further reduced once we talk of sea borne operations. A surface ship at sea can virtually do nothing to hide from the sharp eyes of an imagery satellite. The active countermeasures that are talked about these days are anti satellite weapons (ASAT), jamming or spoofing signal from satellites or the disruption of the ground stations. A satellite system typically involves a constellation of units in orbit; shooting down enough satellites to cripple a system becomes difficult by ASAT, even if such a system existed. ASAT weapons using Lasers or Kinetic devices could eliminate a satellite without producing much debris, but they have yet to be fielded. This option will also have several binding from international community. Jamming (the blocking of a transmitted signal by overpowering it with noise) and spoofing (the deliberate alteration or replacement of a signal with a false one) could be more readily available means of countering a satellite but each has limitations. Ground stations can be jammed, and the jamming might even be made to seem innocent interference. Preventing satellite signals from reaching ground stations or receivers is feasible, but effectiveness depends on the type of signal involved. It, however, implies that most of these techniques can only be effective if applied from a satellite system. A more subtle possibility is to spoof the telemetry, tracking, and control (TT C) signals from a ground station. These signals tell satellites when to turn on and off, when to conduct maintenance routines, and how to position themselves. A satellite system could be rendered inoperative by simply manipulating the TT C signals so as to instruct all satellites in a system to disable themselves. Commercial imagery and communication signals are more likely to be susceptible to jamming and spoofing, but not wholly. While not â€Å"frequency agile† in the military sense, they are able to shift frequencies and to some extent are spoof resistant. However, localised jamming of communications and imagery downloads might be possible if one knows where to jam. Simple deception can also lower the utility of commercial imagery. It can be made useless by effective camouflage, or smoke, or by moving activities underground; these traditional options are available to anyone wanting to avoid the gaze of an imagery satellite. The effectiveness of their application would vary from case to case and in any case these are relatively easy to apply over land than at sea. Disruption of ground stations could be the most effective means against a satellite system. The most straight forward way to disrupt ground stations is simply to destroy them. All satellite systems require some degree of control from the ground. It must , however, be kept in mind that destroying ground stations controlling satellite systems may not be an easy task in itself as they may be heavily defended and any such attempt is more likely to have other serious consequences. 39. GM every capability has a counter. So is the case in the Indian Satellite systems. Pakistan can apply measures to manipulate objects and terrain to partly conceal information to satellites. These counter measures can mainly be divided into active and passive counter measures. First of all active counter measures a. Active Counter MeasuresThese measures include application of ECMS and destruction of the satellites. Exercising this option demands the most formidable technological feat. This entails raising SUPARCO’s capabilities to having a self sufficient satellite launching capabilities, sensor technology and tracking system to identify space objects and their missions. The magnitude of resources and technological acumen needed for active counter measures is enormous and would entail extensive research and development programs to be undertaken. Destruction of the satellite is a costly option. However, if the ground based satellite command facilities, which either control the satellite or receives data from it are destroyed, it would render the satellite unusable. Strategic offensive strikes therefore should include such ground installations. b. Passive Counter MeasuresThese measures include manipulation of objects and terrain within our territory, without interfering in any way with the operation of satellites. Unfortunately these measures are not an assured towards negation of the satellite threat posed. Some of the possible passive counter measures include: I)Concealment Any activity, which involves men and material movement on ground can be detected with relative ease. Concealment of moving targets is difficult by artificial means. The fact that the whole territory is within the view of satellite has to be taken into account for planning movements. This can be achieved by dodging the satellite. Movement will go undetected, if it can be initiated and completed during the blind swath period over our territory. This technique involves exploitation of the satellite orbital characteristics. (2)Exploiting Sensor Limitationvarious types of sensors onboard a satellite have their own limitations. If we can ascertain the type of sensors installed in the satellite through various intelligence sources, limitations of these specific sensors can be exploited. For instance if a satellite is installed with monochromic (black and white picture with less resolution) camera, it can be effectively defeated by making use of ordinary camouflage techniques. (3)CamouflageWith the availability of sensors operating in ultra violet, visible, infrared and microwave frequencies and having techniques of information extraction based on the analysis of characteristics the conventional principles are not fully valid. Therefore conventional principles of camouflage must be augmented with emission absorbent techniques for effective concealment. A peculiar example in this case is shown on the next slide. This is a conventional barracuda camouflage net used over air defence sensors. The small metal rings distinguish this from other nets. These metal rings dissipate the EM waves spread over almost whole of the EM spectrum, hence enabling it to remain undetected. But perhaps no effective method exists to conceal strategic installation like harbors, permanent air bases, steel factories, oil refineries and other large industrial complexes. 4)DeceptionTo make detection difficult and time consuming, deception must be employed along with the camouflaging in a planned manner. Deception is the technique to make real objects appear unreal and dummies appear the real objects. Decoys or dummies of ships, aircraft, tanks, artillery, armored vehicles etc. should be placed in concentration or suitably dispersed and with partial camouflage to lend realism to the deception. 40. From the preceding discussion it can be appreciated that satellite reconnaissance and surveillance is unique in the sense that it cannot be completely defeated, fooled, or sabotaged. Overt and covert, anti-satellite measures are neither fully effective nor fully existent. Keeping in view these limitations the panel puts forth few recommendations in order to address this increasing menace which could prove decisive in any future conflict. a. Research and Development. Extensive efforts in the field of RD in order to improve the existing organization of SUPARCO should be undertaken in order to gain sufficient expertise in space based technologies. India is known to have inducted a large number of experts from former Soviet Union, Yogoslavia and Czech Republic. Pakistan can adopt a similar assistance package. b. As a passive countermeasure, planning of operations should be carried out with due cognizant to time and space being scanned by the enemy satellites. c. Camouflage and deception if planned carefully, reasonable chances exists of deceiving the satellites. Therefore a comprehensive plan should be chalked out and rehearsed periodically. d. SUPARCO should be part of or atleast have a fair representation in the planning and conduct phases of military operations. e. General standard of awareness in our armed forces with regard to the capabilities of satellites is negligible. A concerted effort is needed to create awareness about the satellites and space. f. Although, the anti satellite technology is a costly option, however due regards in research and development should be given for acquisition of this vital technology in the long run. CONCLUSION Maritime situational awareness has compelled the today’s Fleet Maritime commander to have encrypted communicated with his ships at sea, with planes and missiles in the air during war and peace time. We need reliable and encrypted communications and that has been made possible by today’s technologically advanced and sophisticated satellites which are capable of concealing the signals by a variety of clever techniques and also capable of shutting the jamming signal. At the same time, fleet commander he needs continuous RMP be maintained by a wide range of sensors including satellite or air surveillance to exploit the maritime environment. Throughout history, organization and strategy have continually undergone profound, technology-driven changes. Today, information and space revolution implies the rise of an era in which neither mass nor mobility will decide outcomes; instead, the side that knows more, that can disperse the fog of war, yet enshroud an adversary in it, will enjoy decisive advantages. Despite the immense benefits for economic well being of a country, the space has also become the new high ground for Military Commanders to direct future conflicts. Space technology now promises to resolve many traditional problems of a military commander by becoming his eyes and ears. This technology will allow future commanders to employ his gadgets at the time and place of own choosing. Indian aspirations of dominating the IOR through its space based technology will have far reaching affects to the littoral states in general and Pakistan in particular. The fact needs to be realized and profoundly addressed. RECOMMENDATIONS We have discussed the range of possible countermeasures that are available against satellite reconnaissance. Now in absence of a sound satellite programme of our own and relatively crude technological base, it would rather be imprudent to talk of active countermeasures like Anti Satellite weapons and jamming or spoofing of a satellite or ground station from another satellite or a ground based station. The possible options narrow down to the passive measures and certain other activities which may not require much sophistication. a. As imagery is susceptible to weather and is effective only during daylight hours, all movements of ships and submarines out of harbour be planned in dark hours during tension period or in wartime. This would deny the much needed real time information that would otherwise be available about the movement of naval assets. b. Covered sheds and pens be constructed for submarines and aircrafts, and once in harbour or at their bases, the units should remain continuously under the protection of these shelters. Such an exercise would help denying valuable information about normal peace time activities as well as movement of units like submarines would virtually remain undetected by the eyes of a surveillance satellite if all such movements are conducted during dark hours. Ships, however, would remain susceptible to detection and only measure that can be adopted is the sailing of these assets at night which though not very viable solution would still be able to provide some degree of security about their movements . Better co-ordination amongst MHQ, NCS and SUPARCO for the exchange of information of satellites passing over the area of interest. d. These measures which are certainly not fool proof and remain susceptible to failure, are suggested as relatively short term measures. In order to offset this advantage and maintain equilibrium in this very important field, Pakistan has got no choice but to accelerate its satellite programme on war footing. This may be a very long term solution and results may not be visible in any shape in the foreseeable future yet its importance cannot be over emphasized. e. Apart from passive measures there remain yet another strategically offensive option and that is the destruction of ground stations. Important ground stations must be identified during peacetime and such an operation may only be undertaken during actual hostilities or just before they break out. As such an action is fraught with dangerous consequences the decision to undertake such missions would require approval by highest authority. In view of our limitations in space technology, here is some food for thought. Like India, sufficient funds be allocated to undertake various space projects. b. SUPARCO is about to launch satellite in near future which should be used to fulfil our communication and other requirements. c. There is an urgent requirement to collaborate within international consortiums for the development of a remote sensing system with at least 1 meter resolution in order to correct the regional technological imbalance. . Search for serious local/foreign investors to work for space projects. I would just say that despite the immense benefits for economic well being of country, the space has also become the new high ground for Military Commanders to direct future conflicts. Space technology now promises to solve many of the traditional problems of a military commander by becoming his eyes, ears and voice. This technology will allow the future commanders to employ it against adversary at the time and place of own choosing.